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题 目 Facilitating willingness to communicate in English class in junior high

题 　目

Facilitating willingness to communicate in English class in junior high school

题目类型

囗　理论研究　　　应用研究　　囗　设计开发　　囗　其他　

命题来源

囗　教师命题　 　　学生自主命题　

拟完成时间

2019年　1　月　9　日

Introduction

English as a foreign language (EFL) and second language (ESL) has been valued unprecedented attention in China. Early in the 1970s and 1980s, English as a compulsory curriculum has been offered in secondary schools. With the deepening of exchanges with foreign countries, English has been utilized in more areas. As far as I know, English has been offered from primary school even kindergarten in most parts of China. Young kids in primary school and kindergarten may be more active in class than young learners which are in secondary school on account of factors of ages. EFL learners are always expected to keep active and be willing to speak English in EFL class. Students’ willingness to communicate has played a core role in promoting the English learning（zhang,2013）. During the junior high school, majority of the students have been affected by many factors to learn English. However, the willingness of students to learn in English has not been well analyzed.

However, in reality learners who remain reticent in class are much more than learners who participate actively. And it is frustrating that only a few learners participate and respond to teachers in EFL class (Fritschner, 2000). This paper mainly concerns the factors of willingness to speak English in EFL class and what strategies can improve students’ WTC at a secondary school affiliated to Guangdong Universities of Foreign Studies.

1.1 Origin and impetus of the research

Since graduating from normal university, I have been teaching English in different secondary schools. Nearly twelve-year EFL teaching experiences has provided too many opportunities to have class observations for myself. Despite appropriate teaching approaches employed well in some class, my peers and I found that only several students keep active in communicate and interact with teachers in class while the majority of students keep reticent or unwilling to participate in activities of dialogue and express their points of views in English even they know the answer to the question. Some of my peers agree that the obstacle of willingness to speak English in EFL class was considered as the cultural characteristics of Asians (Flowerdew and Miller: 1995, Ferris and Tagg: 1996). Is it the entire reasons or one of the reasons of this issue on willingness of EFL learners to speak English in EFL class? A discussion has ever been conducted between my peers and me about the issue. Different EFL teachers put forward different views of this issue on the basis of their teaching experience. Surprisingly, the complaints about students’ passiveness as well as some objective reasons of cultural factors involve too much. On the contrary, few teachers reflect on themselves about methodologies and strategies employed in class. What on earth are the factors or reasons that lead students to be unwilling to speak English in EFL class? The phenomenon arouses my interest to explore what these factors are and what we can do to improve students’ WTC. As Deci (1992) proposes interest is related to the activity of curiosity and challenge. Therefore, interest is impetus of conducting the study.

1.2 Background of the research

The study offers practical meaning to Chinese foreign language teaching. In China, English enjoys a critical position in the curriculum from elementary school to university. China has the largest population of learning English in the world. Among the crowd, junior high school students take the biggest portion. During the junior high school time, English is a compulsory course with one class hour per day. Under this context, some students who have been studying English for many years don’t want to talk in English or even cannot speak fluent English after graduation. It is called Dumb English in China. It reveals a fact that students actually don’t achieve the aim of second language acquisition that using the target language in the authentic situation. The phenomenon not only deters students from English practical application in their future career, but also leaves an embarrassing question to Chinese English teachers. In view of existing situation, to improve students ability to use comprehensively has been written into the English Curriculum Standards of Primary and Middle School (2001). It means the traditional English instruction centered by grammar teaching should be adjusted to the training of English speaking, reading, writing and listening. Therefore, how to activate students in using English is a main concern for English teachers and relevant researchers. As we mentioned above, WTC is the intention to initiate a communication. Grounding on that, researching on WTC of junior high school students can help teachers understand how to motivate students’ speaking English and improve the effectiveness of English teaching, and thus to promote the implementation of reformation of new course in our country.

Literature review

Why do some students actively look for occasions to use their second language for communication while other more linguistically competent students are reluctant to communicate? This is a question asked by many teachers trying to produce learners who are active, communicative, and cooperative in the classroom. Willingness to communicate (WTC) is a construct that has been reported to be responsible for some learners’ talkativeness and some others’ reticence in the classroom (MacIntyre et al. 1998). Originally conceptualized with reference to first language, WTC was defined as the intention to initiate communication when the choice was given (McCroskey and Richmond 1991). McCroskey and Richmond (1991) conceptualized WTC as a personality trait that was stable across situations and with different types of so-called others. MacIntyre et al. (1998) applied the WTC construct to second-language communication and proposed a situational model of the second-language WTC, claiming that there are some situation-specific variables that influence learners’ feelings toward communication. They defined WTC as “a readiness to enter into discourse at a particular time with a specific person or persons, using the second language” (MacIntyre et al. 1998, 547). The model described the factors that had the potential to influence the learners’ tendency to communicate in a particular situation (e.g., classroom). These factors could be variables related to the situation, such as the teacher, classmate, and topic of the discussion, or they could be of a stable nature, such as personality. Many researchers have recently tried to investigate those variables affecting learners’ WTC in the second language. These studies found that several variables such as motivation (Hashimoto 2002), the size of the group, familiarity with the interlocutors (Cao and Philip 2006), the topic of the discussion, the teacher’s wait time (Zarrinabadi 2014; Kang 2005; Cao and Philip 2006), and teachers’ support or interaction strategy (Lee and Ng 2009; MacIntyre, Burns, and Jessome 2011) influenced learners’ WTC. Some scholars emphasize the importance of WTC and suggest that creating WTC should be the ultimate objective of language instruction in order to help language teaching programs achieve their goal of authentic communication among people from different linguistic and cultural backgrounds (MacIntyre et al. 1998). Kang (2005) reported that by creating WTC, we can produce learners who are more likely to use their second language. Kang added that by generating WTC, learners will function as more autonomous individuals who independently try to learn language and extend their learning opportunities not only inside but also outside of the classroom context. Very few published studies have aimed at generating the second-language WTC, whereas the number of papers investigating WTC from theoretical perspectives is increasing rapidly. Maftoon and Ziafar (2012), examining the factors influencing interactions within Japanese learners, reported that cooperative learning and critical thinking can positively influence learners’ WTC. This study, enamored of these proposed benefits, aimed to put the theory into practice and determine whether learners’ WTC can be increased through some other interventions in classroom activities and teachers’ techniques.

Studies on the factors of the Willingness to Communicate in Second Language

Based on the study of the causes of mother tongue communication willingness, many researchers have studied the causes of second language communication willingness. With the in-depth study of the willingness to communicate by researchers, some researchers have gradually realized that learners’ willingness to communicate in one language differs from that in another, and the factors affecting the willingness to communicate in two languages may be more complex than those affecting the willingness to communicate in one language.

Firstly, many studies have found that the causes of willingness to communicate in mother tongue are similar, and willingness to communicate is most closely related to self-perceived communication ability and communication anxiety. McCroskey (1986) found that there was a significant negative correlation between communicative anxiety and self-perceived communicative competence. McCroskey and Richmond (1990) found that individual willingness to communicate is closely related to self-perceived L2 competence in L2 communication. Croucher (2013) took a university student in Finland as the research object. The results show that the willingness to communicate in second language is negatively correlated with communicative anxiety, but positively correlated with self-perceived communicative competence. The study of Lahuerta (2014) also shows that there is a significant correlation between communicative anxiety and self-perceived communicative competence and willingness to communicate in second language. Willingness is negatively correlated, while self-perceived communicative competence is positively correlated with willingness to communicate in second language.

Secondly, many studies have shown that motivation and attitude are important factors affecting the willingness to communicate in second language. On the one hand, motivation can well predict the willingness and frequency of second language communication (Maclntyre, & Charos, 1996; MacIntyre, & Clement,1996) a Maclntyre et al. (1998) confirmed that learners with similar immersion learning environments had a higher correlation between their willingness to communicate and their motivation for language learning than those without similar immersion learning environments. Baker and MacIntyre (2000) found that motivation was positively correlated with willingness to communicate. Hashimoto (2002) studies show that willingness to communicate is significantly correlated with motivation. That is, the stronger the learner’s motivation, the stronger his or her willingness to communicate in second language, and the more willing he or she is. Grasp the opportunity of using second language to communicate in class, and use second language frequently in class to communicate. Cetinkaya (2005) investigated Turkish college students’ willingness to communicate. The results show that motivation indirectly affects their willingness to communicate through L2 self-confidence. On the other hand, Zenuk-Nishide and Shimizu (2004) created an international posture, emphasizing the important role of attitude in the willingness and behavior of second language communication. They explain that learners’ positive attitudes towards the target language make them more willing to communicate. Yashima (2002) holds that “international posture” refers to “learners ‘attitudes towards target language culture, interest and desire to cooperate with target language users or even the tendency to go abroad.” The results of Yashima (2002) show that international attitudes directly affect motivation and willingness to communicate, while motivation indirectly affects willingness to communicate through communicative self-confidence. In addition, Yashima (2002) points out that individuals have a more open attitude towards the target language social groups, especially the target language groups, and that this learner will be more willing to communicate in the target language. Maclntyre et al. (2001) argued that the willingness to communicate in second language is influenced by peer (or teacher) support, and that teachers should provide students with a safe classroom environment by establishing friendly teacher-student relationship, which can enhance students ‘self-confidence. Once students’ self-confidence increases, they will naturally promote their willingness to communicate in second language.

In addition, learners’ willingness to communicate in second language will also be affected by specific communication situations, which include the familiarity of the communicating objects, the number of communicating objects, the topic of conversation and so on. The results of McCroskey and Richmond (1991) show that if the interlocutors are friends, their willingness to communicate is higher. MacIntyre and Clement (1998) found that in Canadian bilingual environment, learners are most willing to use second language communication when they think their level of second language is comparable to that of other people present, and most reluctant to use second language when they are not confident in their own language or communicate with strangers. Based on the perspective, Kang (2005) studied five Korean second language learners studying in the United States and explored how the learners ‘willingness to communicate in a specific conversational context changed dynamically. Kang believes that the topics of conversation (such as personal experience, hobbies, background knowledge), the subjects of conversation (the relative distance and quantity of the speaker) and the specific conversational situations (when misunderstood or made mistakes) can influence the learners ‘willingness to communicate through their sense of security, excitement and responsibility. That is to say, if a variable changes in topic, conversation object and conversation situation, it may affect learners’ sense of security, excitement and responsibility, so as to influence learners’ willingness to communicate in specific situations through this sense of security, excitement and responsibility as the psychological premise. Therefore, Kang emphasizes the context dynamics of willingness to communicate, and believes that willingness to communicate is a context-based variable. Cao and Philip (2006) also showed that specific situational changes such as the number of group members in the classroom, the familiarity of the speaker, the topic and the classroom environment all affect learners’ communication.

Thirdly, social environmental factors are another important factor affecting the willingness to communicate in second language. Wen and Clement (2003) argued that students’ willingness to communicate is generally low in the context of Chinese culture. In the study of MacIntyre and Charos C 1996, bilingual environment has an impact on students’ second language use. The results show that learners will have more opportunities to use second language communication in bilingual environment, and the increase of communication frequency will reduce communication anxiety in the process of communication, thereby enhancing the willingness to communicate in second language.MacIntyre (1996) research also shows that students in immersive learning environment have higher self-awareness and communication ability, so their willingness to communicate is also higher than that of learners in non-immersive learning environment. Kang (2005) believes that the creation of willingness to communicate is of great help to students who are willing to communicate in a second language. He also points out that by creating willingness to communicate, learners will become more autonomous individuals, and they will independently try to learn languages and expand their learning opportunities both in and out of the classroom.

In addition, relevant studies have shown that gender, age and personality also have an impact on the willingness to communicate in second language, but there are relatively few such studies. MacIntyre and Donovan (2004) conducted such a study. The results showed that female students’ willingness to communicate in second language was higher than male students, but female students’ communication anxiety was higher than male students’ and their ability of self-awareness in second language was lower than that of male students. Cetinkaya (2005) found that introversion and extroversion of personality influence their willingness to communicate through language self-confidence. The study shows that the willingness of extroversion learners to communicate is significantly higher than that of introversion learners. However, experimental observations by Mainning and Ray (1990) found that introverted students were also enthusiastic when confronted with their favorite topics and had a higher willingness to communicate. It can be seen that the researchers have different views on the influence of personality factors on the willingness to communicate in second language.

Compared with foreign countries, the study of English as a foreign language communication willingness in our foreign language circles is still in its infancy. Most of the studies on the causes of L2 learners’ willingness to communicate in China are based on MacIntyre and Charos (1996) and Wen and Clement (2003) models. Therefore, the classification of the causes of L2 communication willingness by domestic scholars is similar to that of foreign scholars.

Firstly, communicative anxiety and self-perceived communicative competence are the two major factors affecting the willingness to communicate in second language. They are also the current rich, 2014; Peng Jian, 2007. Moreover, learners’ anxiety and self-efficacy will affect the willingness to communicate, and the latter has greater influence (Tang Lei, Huo Hong, 2006). Chen Wei (2012) believes that the willingness to communicate in second language is largely influenced by communication anxiety and negative evaluation, that is, the higher the degree of anxiety, the lower the willingness to communicate. Yu Weihua and Lin Minghong (2004) found that students in Guangzhou and Hong Kong the willingness to communicate in English is largely influenced by their English awareness. The more aware students are of their English ability, the more willing they are to communicate in English. Wu Xudong (2008) also found that learners ‘willingness to communicate was significantly correlated with their self-assessment of communicative competence. He pointed out that long-term negative classroom learning experience would lead to low confidence in foreign language communication and gradually exert a great negative impact on the willingness to communicate in second language. Peng Jian(2008) also believes that self-awareness, communication ability and anxiety are the primary factors affecting communication willingness.

When students are not confident of their ability to communicate in second language, they are most reluctant to use second language. Based on MacIntyre and Charo (1996) and Wen and Clement (2003), Yang Wenli and Zeng Yuwei (2012) found that students’ willingness to communicate in class was positively correlated with self-assessment of English communicative competence and teachers’ immediate behavior, but negatively correlated with classroom anxiety.

Attitudes and motivations are also the main factors that most researchers pay attention to when they study the willingness to communicate in second language. Peng Jian (2008) believes that group attitudes and motivations have an important impact on willingness to communicate, which is reflected in group cohesion, teachers’ support and teachers’ teaching style. Students reflect that group activities can be the most common form of communication in the classroom, and students’ willingness to communicate in friendly group communication is stronger. This is consistent with Liu Hong’s (2010) research results, that is, students receive the most social support.

They come from teachers, followed by parents and friends. Chen Wei (2012) also believes that attitudes among groups, especially teachers’ attitudes in class, are very important to students’ willingness to communicate. Teachers’ encouragement, approval or close communication with their classmates will also enhance students’ willingness to communicate. Zhang Luxi and Zhang Jing (2009) conducted a semi-structured interview with English majors in a university in China. They found that teachers’ influence (such as teachers’ behavior and evaluation methods), peer influence (such as peer’s views on their own answers to questions, potential face-loving tendency, motivation orientation, etc.) also affected their willingness to communicate. It can be seen that teachers’ attitudes, styles and behaviors will affect students’ classroom participation. Teachers’ immediate behavior can create intimate and friendly interpersonal relationships and reduce students’ communication so as to increase students’ participation rate in classroom communication activities (Wen, & Clement, 2003). Jia Xuening (2009) found that non-English majors’ willingness to communicate in English is greatly influenced by motivation. Most students believe that oral communication is due to professional or practical needs. Other researchers point out that Chinese students ‘motivation to learn English, instrumental motivation such as the college entrance examination system or “learning for passing the grade” has the most significant impact on their willingness to communicate (Liu Hong, 2010). Chinese students mostly focus on reading comprehension and writing, which are closely related to the examination.

Secondly，Wen and Clement constructed a model of willingness to communicate in Chinese classroom environment based on learners’ social psychology. This model mainly explores the influence of traditional Confucian cultural values on Chinese students’ willingness to communicate in English. Wen and Clement (2003) argued that in China, students’ willingness to participate in communication in class is largely hindered by factors such as social situation and emotional perception, and traditional Confucian values also have a major impact on Chinese students’ English learning and communication behavior. The low willingness of Chinese students to communicate in class is due to “others’ self-orientation”, i.e. the fear of taking risks, the fear of making a fool and the long-term obedience to learning methods, i.e. people’s obedience to authority. Secondly, it is because of the fear of negative evaluation from others (Cui Chengyu, 2011). Chinese learners are especially concerned about the evaluation of others, which is another direct reason that affects the performance of Chinese learners in the classroom. Peng Jian (2008) In the context of cultural vision, it is found that the cultural factors affecting college students’ low willingness to communicate in classroom English include communication culture and learning culture, which mainly refers to Chinese implicit, introverted, silent and face-oriented communication strategies, and learning culture refers to the “teacher’s dignity” and the reading mode emphasizing Recitation in the education of traditional Chinese culture. Chen Li (2010) and Zhang Hui (2014) combined face theory with college English classroom students’ willingness to communicate, and explored that the reason why Chinese students’ willingness to communicate in English is generally low is due to the traditional Chinese “face”, that is, because Chinese people generally have strong self-esteem and pay attention to self-face in the group. Liu Hong (2010) believes that language and culture are closely related. Students’ love of “face” and collective consciousness in class are too strong, which leads to their unwillingness to communicate actively in class. Zhang Qinghua (2014) believes that the traditional Chinese examination system affects students’ willingness to communicate. On the one hand, the traditional examination system emphasizes knowledge, so that students are busy in the “sea war” and have no time to take into account classroom participation, resulting in the neglect of oral communication in the classroom, resulting in low willingness to communicate or even silence.

In addition, specific communication situations have different effects on students’ willingness to communicate. Zhang Luxi and Zhang Jing (2009) found that learners’ willingness to communicate is mostly related to the degree of familiarity of the interlocutors. Compared with unfamiliar people, students are more willing to communicate with familiar people, and they are more willing to talk in English when the topic is interesting. Chen Wei (2012) research shows that non-English majors think they prefer to communicate with friends or familiar classmates because they have less pressure to communicate in this situation. Chen Chuanbin (2012) research shows that students’ communicative intentions are also influenced by the object of conversation, topic of conversation, peer comparison and classroom atmosphere. Students’ communicative intentions are stronger when communicating with familiar people, when communicating with interesting topics or in a relaxed classroom atmosphere. Tang Yanmei’s study (2014) also found that middle school students’ willingness to communicate varies with different communication objects and occasions (friends, acquaintances, personal face-to-face conversations, public speeches and strangers). This is consistent with the results of Kang 02005 and Wu Xudong (2008), but their conclusions also point out that the main factors affecting the willingness to communicate in specific classroom communication occasions include the speaker, the topic and the situation. Huang Rong (2014) conducted a survey on the willingness of non-English majors to communicate in English. It was found that in specific communicative situations, students preferred to communicate in groups, followed by two people who were most reluctant to communicate in public, which was consistent with the results of Hai Chunhua (2013).

In addition, personality, gender, classroom organization, language communication environment and other factors can also affect learners’ willingness to communicate. Zhang Luxi and Zhang Jing (2009) conducted a survey of English majors in a university in China. They found that personality factors can influence their willingness to communicate. Extroversion and extroversion have greater influence on their willingness to communicate. Extroversion-oriented students’ willingness to communicate is higher than introversion-oriented students. Chen Wei (2012) also pointed out that the higher the students’ risk-taking and revolt tolerance, the stronger their willingness to communicate. In terms of gender, Peng Jianye 02008, Liu Hong (2010) and other studies also show that among college students, female students have a higher willingness to communicate than male students; Li Lin and Zheng Yuqi (2009, taking Chinese non-English majors as the research object, analyzed the characteristics of their willingness to communicate in English and the relationship between their willingness to communicate and learner factors, and found that female students have a higher willingness to communicate than male students, possibly because female students have a higher willingness to communicate Language achievement improves their self-efficacy, reduces anxiety and strengthens their willingness to communicate in English. Li Nan (2013) conducted a survey of non-English majors and found that it is difficult for students who are introverted and do not like to participate in classroom activities to achieve interactive communication patterns in terms of gender. In addition, classroom organization also has an impact on learners’ willingness to communicate in second language. Zhang Luxi and Zhang Jing (2009) believe that the form of classroom organization, that is, large class teaching (students have no time and opportunity to communicate with teachers in class), is also an important factor affecting students’ communication. Peng Jianye 02008) believes that classroom organization, such as class size and teachers’ use of textbooks, will affect students’ speaking in class. In terms of language communication environment, Li Nan (2013) found that in China, where Chinese is the mother tongue, students lack a good language environment for learning English. Therefore, it is necessary to cultivate students’ cross-cultural awareness, which is consistent with Liu Hong (2010).

In addition, some researchers have done empirical research on students willingness to communicate. Many research results show that Chinese students’ willingness to communicate in English class is not high. Peng Jianye 02008’s study found that Chinese college students ‘willingness to communicate in English is generally low; Wu Xudong’s (2008) study also found that Chinese English majors’ willingness to communicate in English is generally low; Yang Wenli and Zeng Yuwei’s (2012) study found that higher vocational students’ willingness to communicate in English is generally low; Chen Chuanbin’s (2012) study showed that willingness to communicate has a positive correlation with students’ oral performance. The students with high willingness to communicate have higher oral performance than those with low willingness to communicate. Liu Zifu (2014) made an empirical survey on the willingness to communicate in foreign languages among students in rural middle schools. The results showed that the general willingness to communicate in foreign languages among students in rural middle schools was not strong, while students were in a high level of anxiety about English learning, so their cognitive ability in foreign language learning was not satisfactory. Some scholars also find that students’ willingness to communicate is not high, and try to improve students’ willingness to communicate through new teaching methods. For example, Zhong Xiaoli (2015) combines the concept of flipped classroom with second language teaching. Through the research methods of tests, interviews and questionnaires, it is found that compared with the traditional teaching mode, students’ learning enthusiasm under the flipped classroom teaching mode is higher and their willingness is expressed. Stronger, more willing to discuss with others, more effective to enhance learners’ willingness to communicate in and out of the classroom.

In summary, studies by scholars at home and abroad show that students’ willingness to communicate in second language is influenced by many factors. Learners’ willingness to communicate in second language is closely related to individual and social factors such as anxiety, self-confidence, self-awareness, learning motivation, international attitude, culture, gender, personality, social support and second language learning situation. Among them, self-perceived communicative competence and communicative anxiety are most closely related to willingness to communicate.

Through sorting out and analyzing the relevant research on the causes of the willingness to communicate in second language, the author finds that, firstly, the most frequently studied by domestic and foreign scholars is the influence of anxiety and self-perceived communication ability on the willingness to communicate, and the research results are basically consistent, that is, anxiety and willingness to communicate in second language are negatively correlated, and self-perceived communication ability is positively correlated with it. Secondly, in terms of the relationship between gender, personality, social support and language environment and willingness to communicate, we can see that the research results of scholars at home and abroad are basically the same: for example, sex.

On the other hand, girls’ willingness to communicate is higher than boys’; extroverted learners ‘willingness to communicate is higher than introverted learners’ in personality; there are many studies on the influence of teachers and peers on their willingness to communicate in second language in social support; on the linguistic environment, due to the influence of cultural communication environment, students ‘willingness to communicate in second language in non-immersive language teaching environment generally does not appear at home and abroad. High. Thirdly, unlike domestic studies, in terms of motivation and attitude, foreign studies emphasize the international inclination of motivation and attitude.

Among them, integration motivation and international posture influence the willingness to communicate in second language; however, domestic researchers focus on the influence of internal and external learning motivation on the willingness to communicate in second language, while the attitude of “international posture” is not obvious. Moreover, attitudes are limited to teachers’ support, tolerance among classmates and class atmosphere. It can be seen that the tendency of “international posture” is not obvious. Fourthly, another difference between domestic and foreign scholars’ research on the willingness to communicate in second language lies in the influence of culture on the willingness to communicate. Through the literature review, it is not difficult to find that foreign researchers tend to explore the cross-cultural environment in terms of culture, including the influence of immersive and non-immersive linguistic and cultural environment on second language learners’ willingness to communicate; while domestic researchers focus on the traditional cultural background of China, that is, Confucianism on Chinese learners’ willingness to communicate in second language. The influence mainly refers to the implicit, collectivist or “face” theory of the Chinese people, but does not involve the cross-cultural environment in depth.

Studying the willingness to communicate in second language can help researchers further understand the individual differences and emotional differences of second language learners, and provide a perspective for effective teaching of teachers, so that foreign language teaching can be more effective. Therefore, previous studies on the willingness to communicate in second language have great value for foreign language teaching. But at the same time, its exploration field also has certain limitations.

Firstly, Maclntyre et al. (1998) proposed the mode of willingness to communicate in second language under the background of Western culture, but failed to pay enough attention to the characteristics of second language learning in Chinese environment. Because different cultures have different values towards communication, and there are significant differences between Chinese and Western cultures, second language learning in Chinese context has its own particularities, which will affect the communication willingness of Chinese learners. Although Wen and Clement (2003) put forward a model to influence learners’ willingness to communicate in Chinese context. It also explains the cultural background of Chinese students’ reluctance to communicate from the perspective of Confucianism, but the model only stays on the theoretical basis of speculation and lacks sufficient data or empirical research. Although domestic researchers try to study Chinese learners’ willingness to communicate in second language, most of them are based on Western theoretical models.

Secondly, most of the current domestic studies on the willingness to communicate in second language follow the example of foreign countries, and there are not many differences in research contents and methods. In addition to foreign theories, most of the scales are based on scales developed by foreign scholars. Therefore, there is a lack of scales suitable for Chinese learning environment on learners’ willingness to communicate in second language. For example, some items in the scale mostly describe the willingness to communicate in daily life situations, such as McCrosky et al. (2001) questioning “talking to salesmen in stores” and “talking to police” in English. It can be seen that foreign research methods and tools are basically carried out in the western environment, and such conclusions may not be suitable for Chinese English learners. Therefore, the different research methods and tools may also be one of the reasons that lead to the inconsistency of some research results.

Thirdly, the author finds that the subjects of L2 communication willingness are mainly college students, while few of them are middle school students or primary school students. In addition, most of the researchers are university teachers and graduate students, who are more familiar with the group at this stage and more convenient to investigate, but this does not mean that the willingness to communicate in English classes in junior and senior high schools is not worth studying. Therefore, based on previous studies, this study will focus on senior high school students’ willingness to communicate in English class. It will take classroom anxiety, conscious communication ability, learning motivation and teachers’ immediate action as variables, and explore the current situation of senior high school students’ willingness to communicate in English class by combining qualitative and quantitative research. It will also provide a more comprehensive understanding of students’ willingness to communicate in English class from both students and teachers.

Action research

Definition of action research

In the view of western social work scholars, “action” and “research” are two completely different concepts, which are used to illustrate different themes to carry out activities of different nature. “action” mainly refers to specific and practical activities carried out by actual workers; while “research” is regarded as a kind of inquiry into science or activities, the main body is usually professional workers or scholars. It was only in the 1930s and 1940s that people combined them, which was called “action research” put forward by Collier. Lewin C. Kurt Lewin elaborated on this concept systematically, and then Cony extended action research to education. As for the definition of action research, scholars at home and abroad have put forward their own views, but there is no unified definition.Elliott, the leader of action research in the field of education in Britain, believes that action research is based on improving the quality of action in social situations. Wang Qiang, a famous scholar in France who advocates action research, also defines the concept of action research from the following aspects. Firstly, the purpose of action research is to keep the teachers going. To improve their teaching and Reflective Abilities and enhance their understanding of the teaching process; secondly, the characteristics of action research are teachers’ direct participation and research in the actual teaching situation; thirdly, action research is regarded as a kind of inquiry activity which needs a series of steps while researching and reflecting.From this we can see that the researcher of action research is the actual staff; action research is to solve practical problems in the real teaching situation; the purpose of action research is mainly to improve teachers’behavior ability and research ability, so action research plays a vital role in the following two aspects: (1) to improve the professional ability of educational practitioners themselves and educational problems. Insight and research ability. (2) Optimizing teaching practice in actual teaching situations to provide specific and effective strategies.

Characteristics of Action Research

Action research is an educational research method that combines teaching theory with classroom practice. Therefore, it has different characteristics from other research methods.Herbert, Posch & Somekh, believes that action research is a kind of research conducted by the direct participants of social activities on their own social activities. It is a very specific and practical problem that teachers encounter in oral teaching.David Kember and others argue that action research involves interaction between teachers and students and that the purpose of his research is to improve practice. This is the key to distinguish action research from other types of research. Zhang Zhengdong put forward in his “Research Methods of Foreign Language Education” that the object of action research is limited to his students or his own activities. The main content of action research is the problems that researchers encounter in teaching or in their own development.

Steps for action research

The first scholar who tried to model the process of action research was Lewin C. K. Lewin, an American social psychologist. In his works in the 1940s, he systematically expounded the purpose, methods and steps of action research as a problem-solving method. As a pioneer of action research, he proposed “planning, action, observation and reflection”. The framework of action research. He pointed out that this is a spiral cycle and deepening development process, in each spiral development circle these four links are interdependent and interrelated.

(1) Planning: Planning is the first step in action research. Therefore, planning must be flexible and open, leaving room for future revisions and incorporating unexpected emergencies or other factors into the plan.

(2) Action: Action is a purposeful, planned and responsible practical step, but first of all, basic information about the background and action itself must be obtained and carefully considered. But at the same time, action is flexible and dynamic, and constantly adjusts and changes with the actual situation.

(3) Observation: Observation mainly refers to the observation of the process, results or characteristics of the action research. It can be either the record observation of the action of the researcher or the observation of other observers by various effective means. There are many factors in the actual teaching situation that are unpredictable, uncontrollable and interact with each other. Therefore, the status of observation in action research lies in the fact that observation is unpredictable, uncontrollable and interacted with each other. It seems particularly important.

(4) Reflection: Reflection plays a connecting role in the whole spiral circle, which is a transitional intermediary between the spiral circle and the next one. It includes: collating and describing, that is, sorting out and describing the process and results of various phenomena observed and felt in connection with the implementation of the plan; evaluating and explaining, that is, evaluating the process and results of action research, and combining the relevant phenomena and causes. Understand the explanation, find out the inconsistency between the plan and the result, and then make a basic judgment on the next action, give a reasonable amendment concept and overall plan.

The author also draws lessons from the research method of Lewin’s plan, action, observation and reflection, and strictly follows this step in the whole process of action research.

Research objectives and contents

In this paper, the researchers want to implement the educational action research as the theoretical framework, and put the theory into practice and determine whether learners’ WTC can be increased through some other interventions in classroom activities and teachers’ techniques.

Methodolody

1.Research questions:

What factors affect students’ willingness to communicate in English class?

What effective strategies can be adopted?

2. Methodology

2.1 Method :Action research，questionnaire, interview, observation

2.2 Participants :48 grade 7 students

3. Research design

Based on the action problems put forward before, the author formulates a relatively detailed action research plan, which is divided into four major stages, namely, the first stage is the planning stage, i.e. putting forward the problems to be solved through consulting relevant information, questionnaire survey and other research methods; the second stage is the action stage, which is also the central stage of action research. In this part, the teacher will give some questions to the students in randomly after or begin the class. And the teachers will estimate the students’ behavior from the evaluation methods. In this part ,the questionnaire will concern with the factors affecting students’ emotional motivation and the students’ willingness to communicate with the peers and the teacher in classroom. In order to make this analysis more rational and better, this stage will take the methods of case study for the teachers. The third stage is the observation stage, which mainly observes and analyses the implementation effect of feasible strategies proposed by the research questions. The fourth and final stage is the research reflection stage. It mainly reflects on the review of the research process, looking for the advantages and shortcomings of this study, the problems, and the solutions and limitations of the study.

4. Research plan

The actual research phase of the project will take 18 weeks to complete, that is, from March 1 to July 6. In the first five weeks, the author found the problems in classroom teaching and found out the reasons for the problems through the first questionnaire survey. Through interviews with 9 students and analysis of the results of the questionnaire for 48 students in the class, the author and the whole class jointly explored effective strategies to solve the corresponding problems. From the sixth week to the fifteenth week, the author applied some strategies in the class and recorded the process and results of the research and wrote the research log. The last two weeks are mainly about the analysis of the effect of the implementation of the action.

The following table is the action research plan.

1-4

5

6-7

8-9

10-

11

12-

13

14-

15

16-18

Find out the reasons that affect the willingness to communicate in class by collating materials and investigating and researching. Data collection and analysis.

▲

Explore and formulate effective strategies according to the reasons. Data collection and analysis.

▲

▲

The Effect of Teachers’ Questioning Styles and Strategies on the Willingness to Communicate in Classroom. Data collection and analysis.

▲

The Impact of Teachers’ Evaluation Styles and Strategies on the Willingness to Communicate in Classroom. Data collection and analysis.

▲

The Effect of Students’ Emotional Strategies on Their Willingness to Communicate in Classroom. Data collection and analysis.

▲

The Effect of Students’ Learning Motivation Strategies on Their Willingness to Communicate in Classroom. Data collection and analysis.

▲

The Impact of Classroom Atmosphere on Classroom Communication Intention. Data collection and analysis.

▲

Questionnaire investigation

▲

▲

data collection

and analysis

interview

▲

▲

Classroom Observation and Research Diary Writing

▲

▲

▲

▲

▲

▲

6. Research objective

The aim of the study was to investigate the effect of some motivational strategies on situational WTC of the second-language learners. Throughout the study, learners were placed in different groups and motivational strategies were used. Furthermore, the learners were asked to speak about various topics in order to see how their situational WTC changed.

7. Questionnaire part:

附录I关于初中生英语课堂交流意愿及其影响因素的调查问卷

亲爱的同学:

你好!本调查问卷旨在了解学生英语课堂交流意愿及其影响因素情况，本问卷采用不记名方式，答案无对错之分。请您根据自己的实际情况，认真阅读每一道题目。本调查结果仅在研究中供参考，同时，您的回答也会受到严格保密，十分感谢您的支持与配合!

一、基本资料:下面是您的个人资料，请据实填写或在相应的口内打了

i.性别:口男 口女2、所在学校: 年级: 班级:

二、英语课堂交流意愿调查问卷

该问卷是关于你在课堂上用英语进行交流活动的情况。请认真阅读下列各项，并根据自

身实际情况的符合程度选择1,2,3,4或5，并在该数字下面打钩。其中，1=几乎从不愿意2=有时愿意3=有一半时候愿意4=经常愿意5=几乎总是愿意

以下为题目

在课堂小组活动中，你愿意和同学用英语进行交流吗?

A1 B2 C3 D4 E5

你愿意用英语跟老师谈论你不会做的习题吗?

A1 B2 C3 D4 E5

3在课堂上，如果对老师提出的任务不明确，你愿意用英语再次向老师问清楚吗?

A1 B2 C3 D4 E5

如果有同学用英语跟你讲话，你愿意用英语回答吗?

A1 B2 C3 D4 E5

你愿意用英语主动和同学在课堂上对话吗?

A1 B2 C3 D4 E5

你愿意用英语主动回答英语老师提出的问题吗?

A1 B2 C3 D4 E5

你愿意用英语向同学或老师描述一项运动或游戏吗?

A1 B2 C3 D4 E5

在课堂上，你愿意参与英语游戏或活动吗?

A1 B2 C3 D4 E5

英语老师要求在课堂上朗读课文，你愿意主动朗读吗?

A1 B2 C3 D4 E5

三、课堂英语交流意愿影响因素调查问卷

该问卷是对影响学习者交流意愿相关因素的调查。请认真阅读下列各项，并根据自身实际况的符合程度选择1, 2, 3, 4或5，并在该数字下面打钩(V)。其中，

每当在英语课上发言时，我就觉得很紧张。

A1 B2 C3 D4 E5

在课堂上说英语时，我常常害怕犯错误。

A1 B2 C3 D4 E5

英语老师要点名叫人回答问题的时候我会非常紧张。

A1 B2 C3 D4 E5

在英语课上发言时，即便有充足的准备时间，我也会感到很难放松。

A1 B2 C3 D4 E5

在英语课堂上，如果老师或同学纠正我犯的错误，我会很不自在。

A1 B2 C3 D4 E5

我觉得上英语课比上其它课更紧张。

A1 B2 C3 D4 E5

我担心我说的英语别人听不懂。

A1 B2 C3 D4 E5

我在英语课上发言时，害怕同学嘲笑我。

A1 B2 C3 D4 E5

我担心听不懂英语老师上课讲的内容。

A1 B2 C3 D4 E5

我经常认为其他同学的英语水平比我好。

A1 B2 C3 D4 E5

我学好英语，是为了以后能考一个好点的大学。

A1 B2 C3 D4 E5

我学好英语，是为了不让父母失望。

A1 B2 C3 D4 E5

我学好英语，是为了得到同学和老师的表扬和肯定。

A1 B2 C3 D4 E5

在做英语作业时，我会尽全力。

A1 B2 C3 D4 E5

我学英语是为了更好地了解和欣赏英语国家人民的文化与生活。

A1 B2 C3 D4 E5

我学英语是因为我对语言非常感兴趣。

A1 B2 C3 D4 E5

我学英语是因为受某部英语电影或某首英文歌曲的影响。

A1 B2 C3 D4 E5

相比其他学科，我觉得英语课更有意思。

A1 B2 C3 D4 E5

在课堂上，我能与英语老师进行简单对话交流。

A1 B2 C3 D4 E5

在课堂口语练习时，我能与一位朋友进行交谈。

A1 B2 C3 D4 E5

在课堂口语练习时，我能与多个朋友进行交谈。

A1 B2 C3 D4 E5

在参与英语课堂活动时，我能够与一个不熟悉的人交谈。

A1 B2 C3 D4 E5

在参与英语课堂活动时，我能够与多个不熟悉的人交谈。

A1 B2 C3 D4 E5

我的英语整体水平会影响我是否愿意用英语和别人进行交流。

A1 B2 C3 D4 E5

当我只有认为自己有能力用英语表达时，我才会开口讲英语。

A1 B2 C3 D4 E5

我更愿意和好朋友一起进行英语课堂对话练习。

A1 B2 C3 D4 E5

8.访谈

附录I关于初中生英语课堂交流意愿及其影响因素的调查问卷

你平时上英语课愿不愿意主动回答问题\参与课堂活动，比如讨论…..？为什么呢？

你今天上英语课感觉怎么样？

我发现你今天上课佷活跃\不太活跃\……..，是什么原因呢？

你喜欢哪些课堂活动？为什么？

你不喜欢哪些课堂活动呢？为什么？

我们班的英语课活动，会吸引你主动参与吗？

你觉得比较我们班的英语课比较好的地方有哪些？

你觉得比较我们班的英语课有待改进的地方有哪些？

你对老师有什么好的建议吗？

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Outline :

1. Introduction

1.1 Background

1.2 Significance

2. Literature review

2.1concept

2.1.1Willingness to communicate

2.1.2 Studies on the factors influencing the students’ WTC

2.1.3 Action research

2.2literature review

3.Action research on the Facilitating willingness to communicate in English class in junior high school

3.1problem statement

3.1.1Major problems identified

3.1.2Preliminary investigation and analysis

3.2Action Research Programme

3.2.1Research object

3.2.2Method of action research

3.2.3Design of Action Research

3.3The implementation process of action research

3.3.1Survey questions

3.3.2Formulate Countermeasures

3.3.3Take action

4.Analysis and conclusion of implementation effect

4.1Data collection and analysis

4.1.1Questionnaire investigation

4.1.2interview

4.2Evaluation of Teaching Effect

4.3Students’ Views on action research

5.Reflection and Enlightenment

5.1Review the research process

5.2Problems and Solutions

5.3Limitations of research

Schedule:

1. Preparation period.

1). From the time 0ct.20th, 2018 to 13th Nov, 2018, I would search for the related materials in order to set down the title, preparing the report of the paper.

2). From the time 16th Nov, 2018 to 9th, Jan., 2019, I would search for suitable goal, approach and content, preparing for the report.

2. Written period.

1). From the time 10th Jan., 2019 to 9th Jun., 2019, I would:

a. generalize the materials

b. collect the data and analyze the date

c. finish the original draft.

2). From the time 10th Jun., 2019 to 14th Jul., 2019, I would:

a. revise the original draft according to the supervisor

b. re-analyze the materials and the data

c. finish the first draft.

3). From the time15th Jul. 2019 to 18th,Aug. 2019, I would hand in the second draft to the teacher and revise it according to her advice.

4). From the time 19th,Aug.,2019 to 22nd Sep, 2019, I would truly finish the paper and make it checked, preparing for argument.

3. Oral defense period.

Anticipated findings:

1. Through the research, I can find out what factors affect students’ willingness to communicate in English in junior high school.

2. Based on the findings above, I can find out some effective ways to improve students’ WTC in English.

（以上内容在教师指导下由学生填写）　学生签名：　　

20　　年　　月　　日

八、指导教师审核意见：

　　　　　　　　　　　指导教师签名：

　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　　20　　年　　月　　日

九、教研室审核意见：

　　　　　　　　　　　　教研室主任签名：

20　　年　　月　　日

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Chapters 3, 4, and 5 of the course introduce you to the ‘Cog Neuro Toolkit’ in that you learn Psychology Assignment Help Energy efficiency in data center

Slide 1:

This presentation provides an overview of the energy efficiency in data center. The company that was chosen was Schneider electric. The presentation will follow a two stage structure while analyzing energy efficiency in data center. The first stage is the technical view of the area under study and the second is the business view of the area under study. For the technical view it majorly discusses the technical aspect of increasing energy efficiency in the data center. For instance, technologies used to increase energy efficiency in the data center such as DCPI and UPS will be discussed. On the other hand for the Business view I will look at the business ecosystem i.e. the challenges facing energy efficiency in data centers, the market outlook, the trends, the technological road map and value chain.

Slide 2:

This slide gives a general knowledge of energy efficiency in data centers, as mentioned, data centers utilizes a huge amounts of power and a lot of heat is also released. High energy consumption in the DC is highly attributed by the IT demands and cooling equipment’s, as well as lighting, power distribution, electrical systems and air management. However, with utilization of the modern technologies solutions, measurement tools and innovative best practices, consumption of energy in the DC can be reduced by 20-50%.At Schneider electric the company combines energy management and software serving 4 markets, which is around 70% of the global energy consumption.

Slide 3:

This slide gives an overview of how energy is used in DC. For instance as seen on slide almost half of the energy being used in data center is consumed by the IT loads. And the other half is used by data center physical infrastructure (DCPI) equipment. As such, finding better ways to reducing consumption in this two phases will help a lot in reducing energy consumption.

Slide 4:

This slide discusses some of the methods used by Schneider electric to enhance energy efficiency in data center. The DC uses two cooling modules chilled water cooling modules and Eco Breeze.The ecobreeze can detect the conditions and automatically and the Chilled water cooling module which has highly efficient chillers, six modular, two economizer and a fully integrated pump house. The company has incorporated the modular systems to optimize efficiency.

Slide 5:

Slide 5 discuses other methods that can be used to increase energy efficiency. As mentioned earlier on IT load consumes a lot of energy. Servers are among the components found on the IT load. In this case I suggested the use of energy efficient servers and server virtualization to reduce energy consumption in the DC. Server virtualization involves sharing of one server among various servers, this makes it to be one of the best requirement for energy efficient DC. Whereas energy efficient servers have higher quality of energy efficiency than the standard servers.

Slide 6:

This slide discusses the challenges that the DC faces. As seen, there are two challenges power and cooling AND Power and space. For power and cooling ensuring that the machine is operating at maximum energy efficiency is a stumbling block. Using devices such as Infrastructure Efficiency (DCiE) and Power Usage Effectiveness (PUE), can be used to hold the accuracy while accessing actual time data supply. In dealing with Power and space, enough space should be created to ensure valuable space is reserved for IT power.

Slide 7

This slide introduces the next section which is the Business view.

Slide 8:

The company has a complex supply chain which includes 240 manufacturing facilities globally and 110 distribution centers. With the complex supply chain the company finds it very difficult to transport or ship its products to the final destination in a way that is effective and cost efficient. As such the company can use distributed supply chain modelers into various regions rather than having them centrally located. With an efficient data center the company, the company can use automation solution and business software’s while making use of the expert distribution channels.

Slide 9:

This slide shows some of the ways in which the company can deal with the risks it may encounter while working towards offering energy efficient solutions. In order to dill with the uncertainties the company can use this two methodologies.

Asses and build: Schneider electric can first evaluate the IT needs and identify the risks, then they can determine whether a traditional or a prefabricated build will suit the needs. This will allow the company to determine unforeseen challenges before building a DC.

Minimize and maintain: Specific solutions such as using the UPS are relatively easy to deploy, reducing the cost while at the same time increasing efficiency of the DC when centralising and optimising the existing technology to fit into new requirement of the budget and meet power reduction goals

Slide 10:

This slide shows some of the technologies that any DC can use now or in the near future, while running an efficient data center. Some of the technologies are optimizing the floor space, implementing hot aisle/cold aisle, optimizing room air flow, right size infrastructure, supplemental cooling devices and running an enclosed systems.

Slide 10:

This slide discusses the value chain model that the company can uses for strategic transformation. They are mainly subdivided into two; customer 1 and 1 team. For customer 1 it is used to develop customer delight and for 1 team develop people and performance. To increase the satisfaction of the customers the company emphasizes on local R&D and marketing in order to increase the response to the local market. Furthermore, the company has a strategic ambition aligned to the organisation this increases the industrial productivity since simplified support functions are established to reduce overhead cost.

– 12 – – v – ELEC5885M Interim Report Energy Efficiency in

– 12 –

– v –

ELEC5885M Interim Report

Energy Efficiency in Data Centres

Full Registered Name of Author (including all middle names registered with the University records):- ‘centred’ style applied to this and the following paragraphs

Student ID:

Submitted in accordance with the requirements for the degree of
Master of Science
in Engineering, Technology and Business Management

ELEC5885M, 2017-18

ELEC Supervisor:

The University of Leeds

School of Electronic and Electrical Engineering

Table of Contents

Table of Contents ii

Declaration of Academic Integrity iii

Abstract iv

List of Abbreviations v

1 Chapter 1: Energy Use in Data Centres 1

1.1 Project Introduction 1

1.2 Energy efficiency approaches in electrical/power systems 2

2 Chapter 2: Cooling Systems, Air Management Systems and CHP Systems 4

2.1 Cooling Systems 4

2.1.1 Free Cooling Systems 4

2.1.2 Direct Expansion Systems 5

2.1.3 Chilled Water Systems 5

2.1.4 Other Cooling Technologies 5

2.2 Air Management Systems 6

2.2.1 Aisle Arrangement 6

2.2.2 Vertical Server Arrangement 6

2.2.3 Cable Management 7

2.3 Combined Heat and Power Systems 8

3 Chapter 3: Information Technology Systems 11

3.1 Server Virtualization 11

3.2 Efficient Servers 11

3.3 Passive Optical Networks 12

3.4 Disaggregated Servers 12

Declaration of Academic Integrity

The candidate confirms that the work submitted is his/her own, except where work which has formed part of jointly-authored publications has been included. The contribution of the candidate and the other authors to this work has been explicitly indicated in the report. The candidate confirms that appropriate credit has been given within the report where reference has been made to the work of others.

This copy has been supplied on the understanding that no quotation from the report may be published without proper acknowledgement. The candidate, however, confirms his/her consent to the University of Leeds copying and distributing all or part of this work in any forms and using third parties, who might be outside the University, to monitor breaches of regulations, to verify whether this work contains plagiarised material, and for quality assurance purposes.

The candidate confirms that the details of any mitigating circumstances have been submitted to the Student Support Office at the School of Electronic and Electrical Engineering, at the University of Leeds.

Abstract

List of Abbreviations

ASHRAE

PUE

CRAC

CRAH

CHP

Chapter 1: Energy Use in Data Centres

Project Introduction

Data centres are typically centralized zones or facilities where organizations store their information technology and telecommunications devices that are used to organize and process large amounts of data. These hubs are crucial in enabling the efficient dissemination and management of data in an organization. However, the energy efficiency of data centres is a serious problem as it is estimated that data centres utilize 100 to 200 times more electricity than a regular office space with IT equipment loads accounting for more than half a company’s energy use [1]. There is growing concern over global warming and climate change where the ICT industry being responsible for 2% of the global CO2 emissions [2]. The high consumption of power means that more resources are being used in electricity production which subsequently affects the environment. Data centres will only expand their impact as advancements in technology push for more and more energy use. The concern over the issue is so great that Europe has had to develop a code of conduct to encourage more energy efficient data centres [2].

The typical areas that contribute to the inefficiency of energy use include the information technology systems, electrical systems, air management and cooling systems. Understanding the current energy use in traditional data centres provides a basis for the discussion of energy efficient solutions. The largest amount of energy is used up by Information Technology systems with at least 41%. The energy metric typically used in calculating energy efficiency is the power usage effectiveness (PUE) which refers to the ratio of IT equipment energy use divided by the total energy used in the facility where high PUE is inefficient while a low PUE is efficient [3]. The typical division of energy resources in data centres is illustrated in Figure 1.1. Each of these sections is discussed in the following chapters with emphasis on the IT systems solutions.

The creation of technical solutions that ensure that the functionality of data centres remains optimal while at the same time increasing energy efficiency is of great importance. It is also crucial to develop these solutions in order to protect the globe from more environmental damage. The first chapter deals with the current energy use in data centres and strategies used to minimize the electrical systems energy wastage. The second chapter discusses the cooling and air management systems that are used in data centres as well as the technologies used to improve energy efficiency.

Figure 1.1: Energy Consumption in Data Centres [3]

Energy efficiency approaches in electrical/power systems

Typically power distribution in data centres involves alternate power supplies, paralleling equipment and auxiliary conditioning equipment [1]. Reports indicate that the PDU (Power Distribution Unit) accounts for 3% of the electricity used, UPS (Uninterruptable Power Supply) accounts for 6% while lighting and auxiliary devices account for 2% in typical data centres [4]. These are conservative estimates from studies of organization’s data centres. The energy losses of PDU and UPS devices are reliant on their loading and inherent losses in system components [5]. It is crucial to consider the design of these devices in order to limit the energy wastage caused by these factors.

The strategy implemented by majority of power system designers is reliant on improving UPS and PDU efficiency ratings. One of the strategies is to improve the efficiency ratings of these devices for example by ensuring that the UPS load is as high as possible in battery powered UPS devices to ensure that the efficiency is improved [1]. However, many companies shun this step due to the high cost of initial design and implementation [6]. Similarly, to decrease the switching losses in UPS devices, it is paramount that the power management system that controls and optimizes every pulse of the switching cycle to reduce losses and increase efficiency [5]. Current UPS devices have a high efficiency rating of 92% to 95% which contributes to the overall efficiency of the system [5]. Using UPS devices in the advanced eco-mode allows the primary power path to follow the bypass method during normal operation. However, the inverter remains on and operates in parallel with the input while avoiding the load current therefore taking over the supply in case of any failures [7]. PDUs that reduce energy wastage and have high efficiency transformers that have optimized load factors that ensure energy efficiency [1].

Another source of energy wastage is the conversion of AC power into DC power for most of the devices used in data centres. In terms of distribution voltage options, it is crucial to consider the use of switch mode transistors, situate all voltage regulators in close proximity to the load, and maintain high voltages as each of these factors can increase energy efficiency [1]. The concept of DC power distribution has also been explored for its possible impacts on overall efficiency. Studies have found that using such a system reduces energy consumption by up to 7% compared to an AC power distribution system [1]. Other suggested strategies to increase efficiency is the use of on-site generation and co-generation to generate electricity for the data centres.

Chapter 2: Cooling Systems, Air Management Systems and CHP Systems

Cooling Systems

Cooling systems are critical in ensuring that equipment performs at an optimal level. High temperatures can cause and increase failure rates due to the fact that electronic equipment in closed spaces generates large amounts of heat. Reports indicate that data from 170 data centres found that 59% of centres do not feature free cooling techniques [2]. According to reports, cooling and ventilation systems utilize about 40% of the total energy consumption in data centres [8]. Factors such as sunlight, humidity and wind speed can affect efficiency particularly the outdoor temperatures [4]. According to the ASHRAE, the recommended temperature delivery to the server inlet is to be kept at 77where the humidity is to be kept at a range of 35% to 55% relative humidity [9].There are different approaches to cooling systems that have been developed to reduce the carbon emissions and energy wastage and are discussed in this section.

Free Cooling Systems

Also known as the economizer scale, free cooling systems utilize the dry and cool climate conditions with an aim to reduce the costs of cooling. When the ambient temperature differs from the data centres temperature, the heat flows to the outside without the use of refrigeration systems therefore decreasing the costs of cooling and offering energy savings [2]. There are four types of free cooling strategies that can be implemented in data centres where a combination of these methods creates best practices.

Direct Air Free Cooling: Here the external air is utilized to cool the data centre with the refrigeration systems used to handle extremely high temperatures [2]. Air side economizers have to consider humidification and filtration equipment as a result of the humidity and contamination issues that face data centres therefore affecting the cost and design of a free cooling system [1].

Indirect Air Free Cooling: Air is recirculated into the data centre through an air to air heat exchanger to remove the heat from the inside of the facility [2].

Direct Water Free Cooling: In this method, chilled water is cooled by the ambient temperature using dry coolers which is then used to cool the data centres [2]. Simply, free cooling occurs where the evaporative cooling effect of a cooling tower produces chilled water that can be used to cool down data centres where bulb temperatures are lower than 55 for more than 125 days of the year [1].

Indirect Water Free Cooling: Similarly, this technology requires the use of water cooled through a heat exchanger and can be achieved via cooling towers [2]

Direct Expansion Systems

These devices commonly known as CRAC units are packaged direct expansion conditioners. The packaged rooftop devices are inexpensive and reject heat from the refrigerant to the outside via air-cooled condensers [1].The DX units are an energy efficient solution for small data centres. Air cooled CRAC units utilize an evaporative spray devices that improves unit efficiency and increases energy savings. CRAC units can be developed in a variety of combinational technology that considers the climate of the region where a data centre is located. For example in a dry climate, water cooled CRAC units and cooling towers may be implemented in order to create an efficient energy saving system [2].

Chilled Water Systems

In most cases, data centres utilize complex chilled water systems for cooling where a high efficiency chiller is used. The chiller part-load efficiency is improved through the use of variable frequency driven compressors and low entering condensing water temperatures [1]. For an optimal design, the condenser water and chilled water pumps should have the best pumping efficiency at operating conditions [1].

Other Cooling Technologies

Some of the other cooling technologies include the use of thermal storage, direct liquid cooling and humidification [1]. Thermal storage tanks allow for the storage of heat energy and can be used in areas with high cooling loads while direct liquid cooling refers to an the transfer of excess heat to a fluid at the point of generation [1]. On the other hand, low-energy humidification technologies can allow for the use of machine heat load for humidification. In conclusion, there are diverse cooling technologies that have been implemented in the past that show a significant impact on the energy savings for data centres.

Air Management Systems

Aside from using cooling systems, it is also important to implement air management so as to ensure the separation of the cool air being provided to the data centre equipment and the hot air leaving the equipment. Some of the benefits of properly executed air management systems include a reduction in heat related failures, higher power density and reduced operating costs [1].

Aisle Arrangement

This is a conventional arrangement of aisles in a data centre where the arrangement is made by designing a layout that alternates the cold intake side with the hot exhaust side [1]. Cold air is supplied to the data centre via a floor plenum and perforated air flow panels [8]. The heat from the equipment can then be utilised in an air handler that gives back a higher temperature of up to 85 which can then be used as a heat source and an increase in economizer hours [1]. The use of plenum under the floor allows for the use of a short-circuiting approach that uses a baffle barrier and can reduce the fan energy needs by up to 25% [1] [8].

Figure 2.1:Conventional Hot/Cold Aisle Arrangement [1]

Vertical Server Arrangement

Another proposal to handle air management is the vertical server arrangement where the conventional hot/cold aisle arrangement seeks to be improved. In this design, hot/cold aisle configuration is replaced with a direct air supply from the bottom of each server rack [8]. The vertical server arrangement functions such that air flow enters the bottom of the compartments and the flow rate is reduced for each further row up causing a pressure drop [8]. This configuration has been found to have the lowest power consumption of all other hot air/ cold air arrangements.

Figure 2.2: Vertical Server Configuration

Cable Management

Cable management is the arrangement of cables in a manner that does not contribute to air flow obstructions and that enhances air management [1]. The air flow obstructions limit the airflow distribution and therefore increase energy inefficiency.

Combined Heat and Power Systems

Combined heat and power systems offer an energy saving method of managing data centres by maximizing the use of energy within these systems. Reports find that implementing on-site generation of electricity can lead to the use of heat from the steam or hot air can be used for a thermally controlled cooling system such as an absorption chiller [9]. CHP systems typically comprise of heat generators, heat engines, electrical systems and heat recovery all working in tandem for maximum energy efficiency [9]. Some of the main CHP technologies are discussed briefly below and are categorized according to the prime mover:

Gas Turbine: The main benefits of this technology is that it is highly reliable and has low emissions [9]. However, the disadvantages include the requirement of high pressure natural gases and poor efficiency at low loading.

Fuel Cells: This technology features the lowest emission profile, no combustion, high efficiency over load, no noise and high temperature technologies [9]. Fuel cell technology is expensive compared to the other CHP technologies

Spark Ignition Reciprocating Engine: This power generation technology features operation on low-pressure gas, fast start-up and high power efficiency with a partial load [9]. SI CHP technology also has the characteristic of high air emissions which affects the energy efficiency of the whole system.

Micro-turbine: There a low emissions associated with this technology, small number of parts and can be connected to a direct-fired exhaust driven double effect absorption chiller [9]. It is a high cost investment and has poor efficiency at loading [9].

Figure 2.3: General Schematic of a CHP Application in Data Centres [9]

Chapter 3: Information Technology Systems

According to a study conducted on energy consumption in Europe, 61% of facilities were found to be stand alone with the traditional enterprise model being the most popular [1]. The traditional enterprise refers to the model where the IT equipment, software and facilities are under an organization’s ownership. Half of the energy used in data centres is utilized by IT loads [5]. One of the important elements of IT systems are servers which drive communication in organizations. Servers run at 20% utilization or less yet they access full power at all times in data centres [1]. The reduction of energy wastage due to information technology loads is the primary focus of most studies on the energy efficiency of data centres. There are numerous IT systems strategies that are being used to minimize the impact of the servers that are discussed in this section.

Server Virtualization

Server virtualization refers to the technology where numerous applications are run on a single server so that the physical number of servers reduces significantly [10]. According to a 2012 study, 90% of all x86 servers were only 10% utilization [10]. Therefore, by developing virtualization as a way of handling IT loads by using virtual machines to handle user requests.

Efficient Servers

More energy efficient servers are necessary in order to improve the energy savings of data centres given that the majority of organizations still use traditional racks. It is important to use servers that have variable speed fans whereby servers that fulfil the Energy Star efficiency have the capability of being more than 30% more efficient than the normal servers [1]. Energy Star efficient servers cover the blade, multi-node, rack-mounted, and pedestal form factors and have been in the market since 2009 [10]. These servers are efficient as they have features such as efficient power supplies, can measure power use in real time, power management features and high power quality [10]. The power management aspect can be controlled through throttle down devices which are capable of handling on and off cycles due to the underutilization of the servers [1]. These features allow for the use of multiple physical servers that have a higher quality of energy efficiency than the standard servers.

Passive Optical Networks

Disaggregated Servers

References

[1]

J. Bruschi, P. Rumsey, R. Anliker, L. Chu and G. Stuart, “FEMP Best Practices Guide for Energy-Efficient Data Center Design,” National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Denver, 2011.

[2]

M. Avgerinou, P. Bertoldi and L. Castellazzi, “Trends in Data Centre Energy Consumption under the European Code of Conduct for Data Centre Energy Efficiency,” Energies , vol. 10, pp. 1-18, 2017.

[3]

Dimension Data, “The Relationship between Data Centre Strategy and Energy Efficiency,” Dimension Data , 2014.

[4]

N. Rasmussen, “Electrical Efficiency Measurement for Data Centers,” Schneider Electronic, 2010.

[5]

EnergyStar, “Purchasing More Energy-Efficient Servers, UPSs, and PDUs,” Energy Star, 2018. [Online]. Available: https://www.energystar.gov/products/low_carbon_it_campaign/12_ways_save_energy_data_center/purchasing_more_energy_efficient_servers_upss_and_pdus. [Accessed 20 April 2018].

[6]

M. Sharma, K. Arunachalam and D. Sharma, “Analyzing the Data Center Efficiency by using PUE to make Data Centers More Energy Efficient by Reducing the Electrical Consumption and Exploring New Strategies,” in International Conference on Intelligent Computing, Communication & Convergence, Odisha, 2015.

[7]

Schneider Electric, “Eco-mode: Benefits and Risks of Energy-Saving Modes of UPS Operation,” 2014.

[8]

X. Zhang, T. Lindberg, N. Xiong, V. Vyatkin and A. Mousavi, “Cooling Energy Consumption Investigation of Data Center IT Room with Vertical Placed Server,” Energy Procedia, vol. 105, pp. 2047-2052, 2017.

[9]

K. Darrow and B. Hedman, “Opportunities for Combined Heat and Power in Data Centers,” ICF International , Oak Ridge, 2009.

[10]

R. Huang and E. Masanet, “Data Center IT Efficiency Measures,” in The Uniform Methods Project: Methods for Determining Energy Efficiency Savings for Specific Measures , Oak Ridge, NR, 2015.

[11]

N. Rasmussen, “Implementing Energy Efficient Data Centers,” American Power Conversion, 2006.

– iii – – 7 – ELEC5885M Final Report <Full Title of

– iii –

– 7 –

ELEC5885M Final Report

Full Registered Name of Author (including all middle names registered with the University records):- ‘centred’ style applied to this and the following paragraphs

Student ID:

Submitted in accordance with the requirements for the degree of
Master of Science
in Engineering, Technology and Business Management

ELEC5885M, 2017-18

ELEC Supervisor:

The University of Leeds

School of Electronic and Electrical Engineering

Table of Contents

Table of Contents ii

Declaration of Academic Integrity ii

Abstract ii

List of Abbreviations ii

Chapter 1 Level 1 Heading with ‘Heading 1’ Style Applied by Pressing Ctrl Shift 1: Arial, Bold, Size 16, Flush Left 2

1.1 Level 2 heading with ‘Heading 2’ style applied by pressing Ctrl Shift 2: Arial, bold, size 13 2

1.1.1 Level 3 heading with ‘Heading 3’ style applied by pressing Ctrl Shift 3: Arial, bold, size 12 2

Chapter 2 Tables, Figures, and Equations 2

2.1 Tables using the ‘table caption’ and ‘table description’ Styles 2

2.2 Figures using the ‘figure caption’ and ‘figure description’ Styles 2

2.3 Equations 2

Appendix A Level 1 Heading with ‘heading 1’ Style Applied by Pressing Ctrl Shift 1 2

A.1 Level 2 heading with ‘Heading 2’ style applied by pressing Ctrl Shift 2 2

A.1.1 Level 3 heading with ‘Heading 3’ style applied by pressing Ctrl Shift 3 2

Appendix B Title of Appendix B 2

B.1 Level 2 heading 2

References 2

Declaration of Academic Integrity

The candidate confirms that the work submitted is his/her own, except where work which has formed part of jointly-authored publications has been included. The contribution of the candidate and the other authors to this work has been explicitly indicated in the report. The candidate confirms that appropriate credit has been given within the report where reference has been made to the work of others.

This copy has been supplied on the understanding that no quotation from the report may be published without proper acknowledgement. The candidate, however, confirms his/her consent to the University of Leeds copying and distributing all or part of this work in any forms and using third parties, who might be outside the University, to monitor breaches of regulations, to verify whether this work contains plagiarised material, and for quality assurance purposes.

The candidate confirms that the details of any mitigating circumstances have been submitted to the Student Support Office at the School of Electronic and Electrical Engineering, at the University of Leeds.

Abstract

The abstract should contain a concise summary of the technology you are addressing, its importance and its challenges.

List of Abbreviations

List all acronyms used in the text, with their full definition, in alphabetic order. Example:

BPSK

Binary Phase Shift Keying

CDMA

Code-Division Multiple Access

Chapter 1
Level 1 Heading with ‘Heading 1’ Style Applied by Pressing Ctrl Shift 1: Arial, Bold, Size 16, Flush Left

Use Normal style for your main text. It would apply font Arial, size 11, flush left and 1.5 line spacing format to your text. Heading 1 style is used for the names of chapters and alike. For sections and subsections, please use the relevant Heading style as illustrated below. Note the particular numbering used for sections and subsections.

1.1 Level 2 heading with ‘Heading 2’ style applied by pressing Ctrl Shift 2: Arial, bold, size 13

This is an example of how you can insert footnotes. Use footnotes for short comments. To cite the work of others, you have to include it as a reference, and refer to it using its alphabetic name. More detailed explanation for formatting of the references can be found on the VLE page. You can find more information about technical writing in [1].

1.1.1 Level 3 heading with ‘Heading 3’ style applied by pressing Ctrl Shift 3: Arial, bold, size 12

Except for Heading 1, where most words are capitalised, for all other heading styles, only the first word in a sentence and special names are capitalised. The latter rule applies to the main text too. For instance, rather than writing

“An Additive White Gaussian Noise (AWGN) channel is assumed.”

use the following format:

“An additive white Gaussian noise (AWGN) channel is assumed.”

1.1.1.1 Level 4 heading with ‘Heading 4’ style applied by pressing Ctrl Shift 4: Arial, bold, size 11

Bold fonts are used in the titles of sections, subsections, and chapters. Refrain from using bold fonts unnecessarily. If you want to emphasise on a term use italic fonts, rather than bold fonts or capitalised letters.

Chapter 2
Tables, Figures, and Equations

2.1 Tables using the ‘table caption’ and ‘table description’ Styles

Use caption style for tables’ captions. Table captions are numbered, centred, and they should appear on the top of the table. Table 2.1 provides you with an example.

Table 2.1 Caption of Table — Centred; use Caption style, top of the table.

Heading One

Heading Two

Heading Three

Chapter 1

1.2

1.1.3

References

1.22

12.2.3

Appendix A

12.32

1.3.3

2.2 Figures using the ‘figure caption’ and ‘figure description’ Styles

Figures can be added using the Illustrations section of the Insert tab. Use caption style for figures’ captions. Figure captions are numbered, centred, and they should appear below the figure. Figure captions can be helpful for skimming through your report. It is a good practice to write full captions. Refer to your figures by their respective numbers, such as Fig. 2.1 or Figure 2.1, if it appears at the beginning of a sentence.

Figure 2.1 Caption of Figure — centred, use Caption style, below the figure.

2.3 Equations

Equations must be centred with their reference numbers appear on their right:

(2.1)

Refer to your equations, such as (2.1), by their numbers.

[word count (first to last chapters): 488]

Appendix A
Level 1 Heading with ‘heading 1’ Style Applied by Pressing Ctrl Shift 1

Text under appendix heading. Text under appendix heading. Text under appendix heading. Text under appendix heading. Text under appendix heading. Text under appendix heading.

A.1 Level 2 heading with ‘Heading 2’ style applied by pressing Ctrl Shift 2

Text under level 2 heading. Text under level 2 heading. Text under level 2 heading. Text under level 2 heading.

A.1.1 Level 3 heading with ‘Heading 3’ style applied by pressing Ctrl Shift 3

Text under level 3 heading. Text under level 3 heading. Text under level 3 heading. Text under level 3 heading.

A.1.1.1 Level 4 heading with ‘Heading 4’ style applied by pressing Ctrl Shift 4

Text under level 4 heading. Text under level 4 heading. Text under level 4 heading. Text under level 4 heading.

Appendix B
Title of Appendix B

Text under appendix heading. Text under appendix heading. Text under appendix heading. Text under appendix heading. Text under appendix heading. Text under appendix heading.

B.1 Level 2 heading

Text under level 2 heading. Text under level 2 heading. Text under level 2 heading. Text under level 2 heading.

References

[1] P. A. Laplante, Technical writing: A Practical Guide for Engineers and Scientists. London: CRC Press, 2012.

Notes:

You have two style options for the list of references:

You can use a standard IEEE numeric format, where references are cited by numbers [1], [2], [3], and so on, in the text and appear at the end (here, in this section) by the order of their appearance in the text. That is the first reference in your text will be labelled [1], the second [2], and so on;

You can use the Harvard referencing style; see http://library.leeds.ac.uk/skills-referencing-harvard for guidelines.